The ideology of Japanese nationalism 1905-1945

Bushido

As a residue of its widespread use in propaganda during the last century, military nationalism in Japan was often known as bushido (the way of the warrior). The word, denoting a coherent code of beliefs and doctrines about the proper path of the samurai, or what is called generically 'warrior thought' (武家思想, buke shisō), is rarely encountered in Japanese texts before the Meiji era, when the 11 volumes of the Hagakure of Yamamoto Tsunetomo, compiled in the years from 1710 to 1716 where the character combination is employed, was finally published. Indeed the word bushido, denoting a coherently integrated national ethos, only took on prominence after 1900 with the publication of an English-language book by Nitobe Inazō entitled Bushido: The Soul of Japan.

Constituted over a long time by house manuals on war and warriorship, it gained some official backing with the establishment of the Bakufu , which sought an ideological orthodoxy in the Neo-Confucianism of Chu Hsi tailored for military echelons that formed the basis of the new shogunal government [1]. An important early role was played by Yamaga Sokō in theorizing a Japanese military ethos. After the abolition of the the feudal system, one of the slogans used to mobilize public sentiment and orientate national policy in early Meiji times was Fukoku kyōhei, namely 'Enrich the country, strengthen the military'. The new military institutions of Japan were shaped along European lines, with Western instructors, and the codes themselves modelled on standard models adapted from abroad. The impeccable behaviour, in terms of international criteria, displayed by the Japanese military in the Russo-Japanese war was proof that Japan finally disposed of a modern army whose techniques, drilling and etiquette of war differed little from that of what prevailed among the Western imperial powers.


The role of Shinto

In developing the modern concept of State Shintoism (国家神道, kokka shintō) and Emperor worship, various Japanese thinkers tried to protect national beliefs from foreign elements such as Chinese religious thinking. They returned to ancient Japanese customs, creating the "Restoration Shintoist Movement" following Motoori Norinaga of the 18th century. In researching the origins of Japanese culture, Motoori studied the Classic Shinto Chronicles, the Kojiki. These teach the superiority of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. In this philosophy, Divine participation in natural events is rare and Divine Providence cannot be predicted. Out of respect for the divine, subjects are expected to submit to Divine Providence.

A follower, Hirata Atsutane, expanded Norinaga's idea of purifying fundamental Shintoism from Chinese influences. Hirata proposed a mixed Christian theology, comparing the Amenomikanushi-no Kami, a central God mentioned in the Kojiki Chronicle, with the Christian God. His view was that the first god presiding over the universe had two helpers: Productive (Takami-Musubi) and Divine Productive (Kami-Musubi), representing the Yin-Yang principle of Asian thought. Combined with sacred texts of Kojiki, Shoku Nihongi and Yengi-Shiki, this blend produced a High Monotheist Shinto for the time.

This is the religious ideology which formed the basis for emperor worship and the Shinto State religion: the Divine Emperor was descended directly from Amaterasu Omikami, the National God who protects the country. All proclamations of the emperor took on religious significance; for instance, in 1882, Emperor Meiji made an Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers, from this time considered sacred and obligatory.


In 1890 the educational system was adapted, taking State Shintoism as principal religion. The pre-existing other 13 Shinto sects (sect Shinto) were driven out. "The Emperor is a Revealed God among men, a Manifest Deity for us." The Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers was added to the National education system, to present the historical relation of Imperial mythical ancestors with their subjects. When these texts were read, subjects demonstrated their respect for the Emperor by saying "In Name of your Majesty and your seal."

Hachiman Daibutsu

















Hachiman was Japan's traditional deity of war. The military also used this cult. The families of soldiers sent to the front prayed at his shrines for the national war effort's success, and the prompt return of sons. Some members of the theorists (the "Strike North Group") of the Japanese Army invoked his sacred protection and support. In their view, he gave the "divine opportunity" to finish definitively the Communist danger; they prepared plans for invasion of the Soviet Far East and Siberian lands, as part of Japanese Army general plans of July 1941


Kamikaze

kämiˈkäzē (World War II) (a crewman of) a Japanese aircraft, usually loaded with explosives, making a deliberate suicidal crash on an enemy target, such as an aircraft carrier; a suicide pilot or plane. Japan officially formed a kamikaze force in late 1944. During the American invasion of Okinawa (April 1945), Japanese suicide sorties called kikusui (”floating chrysanthemums”) sank thirty-six ships and damaged 368. An estimated 5, 000 kamikaze pilots died in action.In Japanese tradition, the kamikaze, or “divine wind, ” was a gale that destroyed the fleet of the invading Mongols in 1281.


The extreme use of tradition was seen in the idea of Vice Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi of Kamikaze special defensive units of the Japanese Combined Fleet in 1944-45. Admiral Soemu Toyoda at first opposed this, but had to acknowledge that these suicide units alone were able to inflict substantial damage on the Allied navies. Before making their attack, pilots participated in a ceremony, drinking Sake rice wine. They carried into battle symbolic Kyokujitsu-ki flags, written Shinto prayers, a Nambu pistol or katana sword and hachimaki with sun-with-rays headband.

This drew on the mythical version of the repulse of the 13th century Mongol invasion of Japan.


Banzai

The traditional cheer given to the Emperor and other dignitaries, or on special commemorations, was Tenno Heika Banzai (long live the Emperor), or the shortened form, Banzai. This latter term, which literally means "ten thousand years", is an expression of Chinese origin (traditional Chinese: 萬歲; simplified Chinese: 万岁; pinyin: wàn sùi) adopted by the Japanese in the Meiji period. In its original sense, it is meant to represent an indeterminably lengthy period of time and is used to wish long life to a person, state, or project. As coöpted by the Japanese, it originally was simply used in this sense to wish long life to the Emperor (and by extension the Japanese state), but as the war progressed, it became the typical Japanese war cry or victory shout and was used to encourage Imperial troops in combat.

Education

The principal educational emphasis was on the great importance of traditional national political values, religion and morality. This prevailed from the Meiji period. The Japanese state modernized organizationally, but preserved its national idiosyncrasies. Japan was to be a powerful nation, equal at least to the Western powers, an attitude reinforced from 1905. During the Showa period the educational system was used for militarist radical ideologies, supporting the militarised state and preparing future soldiers.

The government published official text books for all levels of student, and reinforced that with cultural activities, seminars, etc. These cultural courses were supplemented with military and survival courses (against invasion).

In the exterior provinces and Manchuria the education system was distinct, for those who were not Japanese subjects. The Koreans and Manchus for example were educated as industrial workers, office workers or soldiers. Indoctrination with Japanese ideology and views of international relations was included. In Manchuria all ancient universities and schools were closed, with the organization of new centers in which the "humanities" were eliminated (for their 'negative' consequences). A foreign reporter of the London Times visited Manchuria and cited the words of one civil servant "Manchuria needs more workers, not white-collar workers with incomplete notions on how they abounded in Japan". Official Manchurian publications emphasised the 'utility' of the syllabus.

Mobilization of the young

Apart from indoctrination in nationalism and religion, children and school students received military drills (survival, first aid). These were taken further by the Imperial Youth Federation ; college students were trained, and some recruited, for home defense and regular military units. Young women received first aid training. All of these actions were taken to insure Japan's safety, and protect against larger and more dangerous countries.