Friday, August 22, 2008

POLITICAL IDEAS JAPAN

Political ideas

The novel political elements were "exalted militarism" and "State Socialism". Compounded they made a distinctive Militarism-Socialism right-wing ideology.

During the 1920s Right wing-Nationalist beliefs became a major force. The state support for Shinto encouraged a semi-religious belief in the mythological history of Japan (and thus to mysticism and cultural introversion). Some nationalist secret societies took up ultranationalism, Japan-centred radical ideas, and a new conception of State Socialism. They included: Genyōsha (Black Ocean Society, 1881), Kokuryu-kai (Amur Society, or Black Dragon Society, 1901), movements dedicated to overseas Japanese expansion to the north; Nihon Kokusui Kai (Japanese Patriotic Society, 1919), founded by Tokoname Takejiro; Sekka Boshidan (Anti-Red League) founded at the same time as the Japanese Communist Party; and the Kokuhonsha (State Basis Society) founded in 1924 by Baron Hiranuma, for the preservation of the unique national character of Japan and its special mission in Asia.


The introduction of the distinctive theory of "State Socialism" is attributed to Kita Ikki (1885-1937), an Amur Society member and Asian mainland expert, in his 1919 book Nihon kaizo hoan taiko (General Plan for National Reorganization of Japan). He proposed a military coup d'état to promote the supposed true aims of the Meiji Restoration. This book was banned, but certain military circles read in it in the early 1930s.

Political nationalist movements

The Japanese Navy was in general terms more traditionalist, in defending ancient values and the sacrality of the Emperor; the Japanese Army was more forward-looking, in the sense of valuing primarily strong leadership, as is evidenced by the use of the coup and direct action. The Navy typically preferred political methods. The Army, ultimately, was the vehicle for the anticapitalists, hypernationalists, anticommunists, antiparliamentarians, Extreme Right-Socialists and Nationalist-Militarist ideals.

The military were considered politically "clean" in terms of political corruption, and assumed responsibility for 'restoring' the security of the nation, too. The armed forces took up criticism of the traditional democratic parties and regular government for many reasons (low funds for the armed forces, compromised national security, weakness of the leaders). They were also, by their composition, closely aware of the effects of economic depression on the middle and lower classes, and the communist threat.

The nationalist right in the 1920s

Other nationalist-rightist groups in the 1920s were the Jinmu Kai (Emperor Jimmu Society), Tenketo Kai (Heaven Spade Party), Ketsumeidan (Blood Fraternity) and Sakura Kai (Cherry Blossom Society) . This last was founded by Dr. Shumei Okawa, professor of the Colonization Academy, and radical defender of expansionism and military armed revolution at home. Amongst members were Army officers implicated in the Manchuria Affair, such as Kingoro Hashimoto, and Ishikawa Kanishi. Okawa served as a conduit by which Kita Ikki's ideas reached young nationalist officers on the right.

Violent coups took place, and the Kwantung Army made, in effect unilaterally, the decision to invade Manchuria. This was then treated as a fait accompli by Government and Emperor.

Doctrines

The Amau Doctrine (the Asian Monroe Doctrine) stated that Japan assumed the total responsibility for peace in Asia. Minister Hirota proclaimed "a special zone, anti-communist, pro-Japanese and pro-Manchukuo" and that Northern China was a "fundamental part" of Japanese national existence, in announcing a "holy war" against the Soviet Union and China as the "national mission".

During 1940 Prince Konoe proclaimed the Shintaisen (New National Structure), making Japan into an "advanced state of National Defense", and the creation of the Tasei Yokusankai (Imperial Authority Assistance Association), for organizing a centralized "consensus state". Associated are the government creation of the Tonarigumi (residents' committees). Other ideological creations of the time were the book "Shinmin no Michi"(臣民の道), the "Imperial Way" or "War Party" (Kodoha) Army party, the "Yamato spirit" (Yamato-damashii), and the idea of hakko ichiu(whose directly translation is "4 walls and 4 corners under one roof", that means, "one house in which every people can live" or "everyone is family"),"Religion and Government Unity" (Saisei itchi),and Kokka Sodoin Ho (General Mobilization Right).

Geostrategy

The economic doctrines of the "Yen block" were in 1941 transformed to the "Great Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" Plan, as a basis for the Japanese national finances, and conquest plans. There was a history of perhaps two decades behind these moves.

The Japanese theorists, such as Saneshige Komaki, concerned with Mainland Asia, knew the geostrategic theory of Halford Mackinder, expressed in the book Democratic Ideas and Reality. He discussed why the 'World Island' of Eurasia and Africa was dominant, and why the key to this was the 'Central Land' in Central Asia. This is protected from sea attack, by deserts and mountains, and is vulnerable only on its west side, and to advanced technology from Europe.

Mackinder declared that: "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the heartland commands the World Island; Who rules the World Island commands the World". These central Asiatic lands included: all of the Soviet Union, except the Pacific coast, west of the Volga river; all Mongolia, Sinkiang, Tibet and Iran. This zone is vast and possesses natural resources and raw materials, does not possess major farming possibilities, and has very little population. Mackinder thought in terms of land and sea power: the latter can outflank the former, and carry out distant logistical operations, but needs adequate bases.

These geopolitical ideas coincided with the theories of Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara, sent in 1928 to Manchuria to spy. The Army adopted them, in some form. Army theorists were located in the Manchuria area.

The Navy, on the other hand, was interested in the southerly direction of expansion (see Strike South group) the ideological center of Navy theorists stay in Formosa. These differing ideas were partly rooted in the supposed ancestral origins of the Japanese Army and Navy: Chosu or Izumo for the former, Satsuma and Yamato for the latter. The zaibatsu monopolies, while not lining up with either, leant to the Yamato clan, and economic interests. An extended debate ensued, resolved in the end by the stern experience of Japan's armed conflicts with the Soviet Union in 1938-39. This tipped the balance towards the 'South' plan, and the Pearl Harbor attack that precipitated the Pacific War in 1941.

Other ideological lines

Fumio Goto was the head of the Showa Studies Society, another "school" and "think tank" for future leaders of a radical totalitarian Japan. Count Yoriyasu Arima was another "professor" there. He was a supporter of radical political experiments and armed revolution, and contact with farmers' associations led by the Imperial Farmers Association. He read Karl Marx and Max Stirner, and other radical philosophers. With Fumimaro Konoye and Fusanosuke Kuhara, they created a revolutionary radical-right policy.

These revolutionary groups later had the help of three important personages, in making reality some certain ideas of a lost cause: they have in common practical work on the Manchukuo Socialist-Militarist policy. They were: General Hideki Tojo, chief of secret police in this country and leader of Kwantung Army and other Northern regions; Yosuke Matsuoka, who served as president of Mantetsu (South Manchuria Railway Company) and Foreign affairs minister; and Naoki Hoshino, an army ideologist who organized the government and political structure of Manchukuo. Tojo later became War Minister and Prime Minister in the Konoye cabinet, Matsuoka Foreign Minister, and Hoshino chief of Project departments charged with establishing a new economic structure for Japan. Some industrialists representative of this ideological strand were Ichizo Kobayashi, President of Tokio Gasu Denki, setting the structure for the Industry and Commerce ministry, and Shozo Murata, representing the Sumitomo Group becoming Communication Minister.

Control of communications media

The Press and other communication media were managed for the Information Department by Dr. Nobofumi Ito and official spokesman Koh Ishii. Radio Tokyo was charged with disseminating all official information around the world. The radio transmitted in English, Dutch, three Chinese dialects, French, Malay, Thai, as well Japanese to Southeast Asia; and the Islamic world had programs broadcast in Hindustani, Burmese, Arabic, English and French. In Hawaii there were radio programs in English and Japanese. Other daily transmissions were to Europe, South and Central America, eastern areas of South America and the USA, with Australia and New Zealand receiving broadcasts too.

The official press agency Domei Tsushin was connected with the Axis powers' press agencies such as D. N. B., Transoceanic, the Italian agency Stefani and others. Local and Manchukoan newspapers such as "Manchurian Daily News" (Japanese-owned) were under the control of these institutions and only published officially approved notices and information.

Nationalist politics

Origin of nationalist structures and parties


In 1882 the Japanese Government organized the Teiseito (Imperial Gubernative Party), one of first nationalist parties in the country. From the Russo-Japanese War Japan was called "Dai Nippon Teikoku", setting up a real Empire, with the inclusions of Formosa (1895), the Liaodong Peninsula and Karafuto (1905), the South Pacific Mandate islands (1918-19) and aiming at control of Joseon (Korea)(1905-10).



The wars against China and Russia were total wars, and required a nationalistic focus of patriotic sentiment. From this period the Yasukuni Jinja was converted into a center of the new patriotic sense. During the 1920s years the official establishment was conceptually organized in this form: Nobility and Aristocracy (Mombatsu); Commercial and Industrialist (Zaibatsu); military and some great landowner clan allies (Gumbatsu).



In 1926-28 the central government organized the "Peace preservation Department" (an antisubversive police section), and prosecuted all local communists who proposed a socialist form of government. The Japanese Army organized the Kempeitai (Military police service) and the Japanese Navy an equivalent. These security groups not only had military police responsibilities, additionally they possessed special weapons (groups in Manchuria), and a political department, and were ideologically related to the Kōdōha Party (a faction, and a political branch of the Army in civil government) and the colonial and security administrations.



Realities of political power


According to some authors, to call Japan in 1941 fascist or totalitarian is an error. The "New Structure" in Japan did not depend on one leader at the centre, a Mussolini or Hitler. Japanese citizens were rallied to the "Defensive State" or "Consensus State", in which all efforts of the nation supported collective objectives, by guidance from national myths, history and dogmas, obtaining a "national consensus".



Since the Meiji restoration, the central figure of the state was the Tenno, the emperor. According to the constitution, the tenno was head of the state (article 4) and commander of the Army and the Navy (article 11). Emperor Showa was also, from 1937, the commander of the Imperial General Headquarters.



About who really held the political power in Japan, there are three versions. One says that real control was exerted by the Emperor over the military; another validates a "consensus leadership" between the Emperor the other members of the Imperial General Headquarters, the government and the zaibatsu. There is also the 'militarist' position, denying politics as a factor. It argues that real control did lie with the military, behind a front formed by the Emperor and Government (as certainly occurred in Manchukuo with the Kangde Emperor Puyi).




For many historians such as Akira Fujiwara, Akira Yamada, Peter Wetzler, Herbert Bix and John Dower, the work done by Douglas MacArthur and SCAP during the first months of the occupation of Japan to exonerate Hirohito and all the imperial family from criminal prosecutions in the Tokyo tribunal was the predominant factor in the successful campaign to diminish in retrospect the role played by the emperor during the war. They argue that post-war view focused on the imperial conferences and missed the numerous "behind the crysanthemum curtain" meetings where the real decisions were made between emperor Showa, his chiefs of staff and the cabinet. For Fujiwara, "the thesis that the Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision, is a myth (shinwa) fabricated after the war.


The principal military figures were:

  • General Hideki Tojo, First chief of Kempeitai in Manchukuo, prime minister, war minister, interior affairs Minister also in 1941 head of Kodoha party,
  • Lieutenant-General Hyotaro Yamada,War vice-minister,
  • General Sadao Araki, Army radical ideologist, also founder and first chief of the Kodoha party right-wing nationalist movement and during 1938-39 are Ministry of Education,
  • General Hachiro Arita, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Army thinker, he had engineered a pact with the Axis powers against Russia, also himself brainchild of "Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere" Concept,
  • Prince Kan'in Kotohito, chief of staff of the Army
  • General Hajime Sujiyama, state chief of Army,
  • General Otozo Yamada, Home defense commander in chief of military instructions,
  • Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi, chief of staff of the Navy
  • Admiral Osami Nagano, state chief of Navy,
  • Admiral Koshiró Oikawa,Marine Minister, also one of navy strategists why organized the conquest plans to southern area
  • Rear Admiral Shigeru Fukudome, second state chief of Navy,
  • Admiral Shigetaro Shimada, Marine Minister,
  • Admiral Mineo Osumi, nobility member and oldest member of the Supreme War Council (Japan) and ex-Marine Minister,
  • Admiral Teijiro Toyoda,Ex-vice Marine Minister, Commerce & Industry and Foreign Affairs Minister, relationed with Mitsui Zaibatsu Clan,
  • General Juichi Terauchi, son of Marshal Masatake Terauchi, in charge of the Army forces during the early Pacific war in South Asia,
  • General Takazo Numata, second Commander of Army forces in South Asia,
  • Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Chief of Combined Pacific Fleet, himself conceived the Hawaii Operation and directed the Navy forces during the Pearl Harbor attack and early Pacific war,
  • Rear Admiral Matome Ugaki, second chief of Combined Pacific Fleet, more remembered himself how some survivor of American shot-down of Isoroku Yamamoto's Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" Command Transport in Salomon Islands, and last direct navy commander of final Kamikaze Mission in Okinawa,
  • Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, direct Navy Commander the Japanese Task force during Hawaii Operation,
  • Vice Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi, head of Naval Aviation Division of Munitions Ministry, also later First Air Fleet Land-based Commander in Northern Philippines, since October 1944, well known as founder of the Kamikaze special forces,
  • General Hiroshi Oshima, the official contact with Germany, and a firm supporter of the Nazis,
  • Major-General Kazuo Otani, another Japanese contact with Europeans and some supporter of Nazis too,
  • Lieutenant-General Seizo Sakonji, Commerce & Industry minister replacing Admiral Toyoda
The names of Mitsui, Mitsubishi (Iwasaki), Sumitomo, Okura, Asano, Kuhara and Yasuda, amongst others, were prominent as industrialists.

The ideology of Japanese nationalism 1905-1945

Bushido
As a residue of its widespread use in propaganda during the last century, military nationalism in Japan was often known as bushido (the way of the warrior). The word, denoting a coherent code of beliefs and doctrines about the proper path of the samurai, or what is called generically 'warrior thought' (武家思想, buke shisō), is rarely encountered in Japanese texts before the Meiji era, when the 11 volumes of the Hagakure of Yamamoto Tsunetomo, compiled in the years from 1710 to 1716 where the character combination is employed, was finally published. Indeed the word bushido, denoting a coherently integrated national ethos, only took on prominence after 1900 with the publication of an English-language book by Nitobe Inazō entitled Bushido: The Soul of Japan.

Constituted over a long time by house manuals on war and warriorship, it gained some official backing with the establishment of the Bakufu , which sought an ideological orthodoxy in the Neo-Confucianism of Chu Hsi tailored for military echelons that formed the basis of the new shogunal government [1]. An important early role was played by Yamaga Sokō in theorizing a Japanese military ethos. After the abolition of the the feudal system, one of the slogans used to mobilize public sentiment and orientate national policy in early Meiji times was Fukoku kyōhei, namely 'Enrich the country, strengthen the military'. The new military institutions of Japan were shaped along European lines, with Western instructors, and the codes themselves modelled on standard models adapted from abroad. The impeccable behaviour, in terms of international criteria, displayed by the Japanese military in the Russo-Japanese war was proof that Japan finally disposed of a modern army whose techniques, drilling and etiquette of war differed little from that of what prevailed among the Western imperial powers.


The role of Shinto

In developing the modern concept of State Shintoism (国家神道, kokka shintō) and Emperor worship, various Japanese thinkers tried to protect national beliefs from foreign elements such as Chinese religious thinking. They returned to ancient Japanese customs, creating the "Restoration Shintoist Movement" following Motoori Norinaga of the 18th century. In researching the origins of Japanese culture, Motoori studied the Classic Shinto Chronicles, the Kojiki. These t
each the superiority of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. In this philosophy, Divine participation in natural events is rare and Divine Providence cannot be predicted. Out of respect for the divine, subjects are expected to submit to Divine Providence.

A follower, Hirata Atsutane, expanded Norinaga's idea of purifying fundamental Shintoism from Chinese influences. Hirata proposed a mixed Christian theology, comparing the Amenomikanushi-no Kami, a central God mentioned in the Kojiki Chronicle, with the Christian God. His view was that the first god presiding over the universe had two helpers: Productive (Takami-Musubi) and Divine Productive (Kami-Musubi), representing the Yin-Yang principle of Asian thought. Combined with sacred texts of Kojiki, Shoku Nihongi and Yengi-Shiki, this blend produced a High Monotheist Shinto for the time.

This is the religious ideology which formed the basis for emperor worship and the Shinto State religion: the Divine Emperor was descended directly from Amaterasu Omikami, the National God who protects the country. All proclamations of the emperor took on religious significance; for instance, in 1882, Emperor Meiji made an Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers, from this time considered sacred and obligatory.


In 1890 the educational system was adapted, taking State Shintoism as principal religion. The pre-existing other 13 Shinto sects (sect Shinto) were driven out. "The Emperor is a Revealed God among men, a Manifest Deity for us." The Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers was added to the National education system, to present the historical relation of Imperial mythical ancestors with their subjects. When these texts were read, subjects demonstrated their respect
for the Emperor by saying "In Name of your Majesty and your seal."

Hachiman Daibutsu

















Hachiman was Japan's traditional deity of war. The military also used this cult. The families of soldiers sent to the front prayed at his shrines for the national war effort's success, and the prompt return of sons. Some members of the theorists (the "Strike N
orth Group") of the Japanese Army invoked his sacred protection and support. In their view, he gave the "divine opportunity" to finish definitively the Communist danger; they prepared plans for invasion of the Soviet Far East and Siberian lands, as part of Japanese Army general plans of July 1941


Kamikaze

kämiˈkäzē (World War II) (a crewman of) a Japanese aircraft, usually loaded with explosives, making a deliberate suicidal crash on an enemy target, such as an aircraft carrier; a suicide pilot or plane. Japan officially formed a kamikaze f
orce in late 1944. During the American invasion of Okinawa (April 1945), Japanese suicide sorties called kikusui (”floating chrysanthemums”) sank thirty-six ships and damaged 368. An estimated 5, 000 kamikaze pilots died in action.In Japanese tradition, the kamikaze, or “divine wind, ” was a gale that destroyed the fleet of the invading Mongols in 1281.


The extreme use of tradition was seen in the idea of Vice Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi of Kamikaze special defensive units of the Japanese Combined Fleet in 1944-45. Admiral Soemu Toyoda at first opposed this, but had to acknowledge that these suicide units
alone were able to inflict substantial damage on the Allied navies. Before making their attack, pilots participated in a ceremony, drinking Sake rice wine. They carried into battle symbolic Kyokujitsu-ki flags, written Shinto prayers, a Nambu pistol or katana sword and hachimaki with sun-with-rays headband.

This drew on the mythical version of the repulse of the 13th century Mongol invasion of Japan.


Banzai


The traditional cheer
given to the Emperor and other dignitaries, or on special commemorations, was Tenno Heika Banzai (long live the Emperor), or the shortened form, Banzai. This latter term, which literally means "ten thousand years", is an expression of Chinese origin (traditional Chinese: 萬歲; simplified Chinese: 万岁; pinyin: wàn sùi) adopted by the Japanese in the Meiji period. In its original sense, it is meant to represent an indeterminably lengthy period of time and is used to wish long life to a person, state, or project. As coöpted by the Japanese, it originally was simply used in this sense to wish long life to the Emperor (and by extension the Japanese state), but as the war progressed, it became the typical Japanese war cry or victory shout and was used to encourage Imperial troops in combat.

Education

The principal educational emphasis was on the great importance of traditional national political values, religion and morality. This prevailed from the Meiji period. The Japanese state modernized organizationally, but preserved its national idiosyncrasies. Japan was to be a powerful nation, equal at least to the Western powers, an attitude reinforced from 1905. During the Showa period the educational system was used for militarist radical ideologies, supporting the militarised state and preparing future soldiers.

The government published official text books for all levels of student, and reinforced that with cultural activities, seminars, etc. These cultural courses were supplemented with military and survival courses (against invasion).

In the exterior provinces and Manchuria the education system was distinct, for those who were not Japanese subjects. The Koreans and Manchus for example were educated as industrial workers, office workers or soldiers. Indoctrination with Japanese ideology and views of international relations was included. In Manchuria all ancient universities and schools were closed, with the organization of new centers in which the "humanities" were eliminated (for their 'negative' consequences). A foreign reporter of the London Times visited Manchuria and cited the words of one civil servant "Manchuria needs more workers, not white-collar workers with incomplete notions on how they abounded in Japan". Official Manchurian publications emphasised the 'utility' of the syllabus.

Mobilization of the young

Apart from indoctrination in nationalism and religion, children and school students received military drills (survival, first aid). These were taken further by the Imperial Youth Federation ; college students were trained, and some recruited, for home defense and regular military units. Young women received first aid training. All of these actions were taken to insure Japan's safety, and protect against larger and more dangerous countries.



Japanese nationalism

Japanese nationalism refers to a broad range of ideas and sentiments entertained by the Japanese over the last two centuries regarding their native country, its cultural nature, political form and historical destiny. As such it denotes simply the Japanese version of nationalism which is generally understood to be a process of identity-formation in states undergoing a transition from an earlier agricultural polity towards industrialism and modernity. For convenience's sake, it is useful to distinguish cultural nationalism from political or state-directed nationalism or Japanese imperialism, since many forms of cultural nationalism, such as those associated with folkloric studies (see, for example under Yanagita Kunio), were hostile to state-fostered nationalism. The former aspect, nationalism as the expression of cultural identity, is examined in more detail under nihonjinron. Here political and military nationalism will be analysed.

From a political point of view and in the years leading up to World War II, the particular political and ideological foundations for the actions of the Japanese military (Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy forces, not always acting in concert) can be called a Japanese nationalist ideology. It combined philosophical, nationalistic, cultural and religious elements, mostly drawn eclectically from the larger historical discourse on Japan, the Japanese and their respective historical natures built up over the preceding two centuries. Despite its distinctive features (Emperor worship and the ethno-religious character of the state), functionally this rhetorical panoply of cultural ideas served the same function as similar ideologies developed under Western Fascism, and indeed, drew doctrinal inspiration from these fraternal movements abroad.